?prosthetic

prosthetic發(fā)音

英：[pr?s'θet?k]　　美：[prɑs?θ?t?k]

英：　　美：

prosthetic中文意思翻譯

adj.假體的, 修復術的, 非朊基的

prosthetic詞形變化

副詞: prosthetically |

prosthetic常見例句

1 、Developing countries urgently need more effective strategies to prevent and treat prosthetic valve thrombosis.───發(fā)展中國家迫切需要更有效的策略來預防和治療人工瓣膜血栓。

2 、Plastic repair with prosthetic implant───假體植入整形修復術

3 、Conference Contents: Clinical Prothodonitics, Clinical Oral Implantology, Prosthetic Techniques and Oral Implantologic technigues.───會議內(nèi)容：口腔技術，其中包括口腔修復臨床、口腔種植臨床、口腔修復工藝、口腔種植工藝等。

4 、It acts as a prosthetic group to various dehydrogenases, such as NADH dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the transfer of electrons from NADH to coenzyme Q in the respiratory electron-transport chain.───如NADH脫氫酶，在呼吸電子傳遞鏈中，它促進電子從NADH轉(zhuǎn)移到輔酶Q。

5 、The infection can spread into the mediastinum, involving the prosthetic valve, grafts, and suture lines.───感染能夠漫延至縱膈腔，影響到人工瓣膜或血管、繞道之血管及縫合處。

6 、I would like to take this opportunity to thank the Prosthetic &Orthotic Association of China for their valuable advice and support in finding a resolution to this difficult issue.───在這段時間內(nèi)，就如何解決這一難題，協(xié)會給司提出了很有價值的建議以及寶貴的支持。我希望能借此機會，向中國假肢矯形器協(xié)會表示感謝。

7 、prosthetic heart valve replacement───人工機械心臟瓣膜置換術

8 、Objective To investigate the impact of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) on free amino acid spectrum in plasma for patients with prosthetic valve replacement.───摘要目的了解體外循環(huán)圈對心臟瓣膜置換術患者圍術期血漿游離氨基酸譜的影響。

9 、Ekstrand B A,Hensten-Pettersen S,Kullman A.Denture adhesives:cytotoxicity,microbial contamination,and formaldehyde content[J].J Prosthet Dent,1993,69:314.───口腔材料生物學評價:口腔材料生物性能評價導則.

10 、The cantilever fixed partial denture has often been considered as a poor prosthetic design by dentists, because of the frequently happened failure caused by biological and technical complications.───摘要懸臂式固定局部義齒因為常常發(fā)生生物性與技術性的并發(fā)癥造成失敗，所以常被牙科醫(yī)師認為是不良的補綴設計。

11 、Objective: To seek for another kind of prosthetic material.───尋找另一類人工假體材料。

12 、Many of her patients were veterans of World War II, and most of them, elderly and accustomed to what they had, made little demand for prosthetic innovation.───從前她有許多病人是二次大戰(zhàn)的退伍老兵，這些人年紀較大、用慣了手邊的東西，對新發(fā)明的義肢不感興趣。

13 、Prosthetic heart valve replacement in children───兒童瓣膜置換術

14 、A step response is generated when the prosthetic hand touches an object.───當假手接觸到物體時,傳感器產(chǎn)生一個階躍響應;

15 、With her previous prosthetic limb, she could only do one thing at a time - either open her elbow or open her hand.───以前的假手臂只能讓她一次干一件事，要麼伸開她的肘關節(jié)，要麼張開她的手。

16 、Abstract: The two alignment angles between the prosthetic socket and the shank must be specified when a monolithic prosthetics is designed.───文章摘要: 在一體化小腿假肢設計階段，必須確定接受腔和腿管之間的正常對線角度。

17 、prosthetic disc nucleus replacement───人工髓核置換術

18 、It may be favorable to avoid using the S-shaped artery in operations to correct or bypass arterial stenosis when utilizing prosthetic or autologous vessels.───在利用人造或自體血管修復旁路狹窄動脈的手術中，應盡量避免采用S形動脈模型。

19 、Allograft-prosthesis combination in included allograft proximal femurs with tatal hip arthroplasty (3 patients), allografts bipolar femoral head replacement (8), allografts with toral knee arthoplasty prosthetic replacements (7).───60歲，其中骨肉瘤4例，軟骨肉瘤2例，惡性骨巨細胞瘤3例，纖維肉瘤3例，其它惡性骨腫瘤4例。

20 、We've talked about you rewiring the prosthetics.─── 不是說好不再改裝假肢了嗎

21 、Simmons, what's going on? It's a prosthetic.─── 西蒙斯 怎么回事 是假眼

22 、Surgical treatment of prosthetic valve endocarditis───人工心臟瓣膜心內(nèi)膜炎的外科治療

23 、Michigan Prosthetic Center to Make Artificial Leg for Puppy Born Without Ankle Joint, Right Paw.───密執(zhí)安州假肢中心為一條剛出生的,右腿踝關節(jié)缺失的小狗裝假腿。

24 、I know an engineer who designs prosthetics.─── 我認識一個設計假肢的工程師

25 、This paper discusses not only the possible methods for kinematic and dynamic analysis of this linkage, but also themethod of the design of the across linkage as a prosthetic knee mechanism.───同時還提出了交叉式連桿膝關節(jié)機構(gòu)的設計方法。

26 、PURPOSE: Prosthetic rehabilitation with stud structure to sectional complete denture for a patient with microstomia was done and the treatment result was evaluated.───摘要目的：將按扣式分段全口義齒應用于無牙頜小口畸形患者的修復中，評價其修復效果。

27 、Those prosthetics are the only thing keeping you alive.─── 那些假肢是讓你活著的唯一機會

28 、Prosthetic Center to Make Leg for Puppy───假肢中心為幼犬裝假腿

29 、White SN , CaputtoAA, Ander KristT. Effect of cantilever length on stress transfer by implant supported prosthesis. [J] J Prosthet Dent. 1994May,71(5): 493-9.───張少峰,馬軒祥,歐陽官等.種植全口義齒的應力分布特點.[J]實用口腔醫(yī)學雜志，1997,13(3):194-57.

30 、His eyes were created by a specialist unit at Blackpool which makes prosthetic eyes for the NHS.───他的眼睛是由布拉克普耳一個專門為國民保健署制作假眼的機構(gòu)制造的。

31 、Taking a transtibial residual limb as object, three dimensional finite element (FE) models of the residual limb and prosthetic socket were constructed.───摘要以小腿殘肢為研究對象，建立了殘肢與接受腔三維有限元模型。

32 、It is an important approach for CAD/CAM of prosthetic sockets to establish digital model of residual lower limbs from amputees.───應用新技術進行截肢患者殘端精確測量及數(shù)字化建模,對實現(xiàn)假肢接受腔計算機輔助設計及制造(CAD/CAM)顯得日趨重要。

33 、Prosthetic shunts and high preshunt portal venous pressure were predictors of subsequent shunt dysfunction.───修復性分流與分流前很高的門靜脈壓力是分流原機能障礙的預測指標。

34 、Lb has a haem prosthetic group and an apoprotein component of 15600 to 15900 molecular weight.───Lb含有血紅素輔基和一個分子量為15600到15900的脫輔基蛋白。

35 、In our experience of fabricating orthotics and prosthetic devices for the foot we determined this material to be the best preventative measure against diabetic ulcers and shear forces.───以我們的經(jīng)驗,鞋子有矯形假肢裝置,這種材料可以很好地預防糖尿病,也可以減少切力.

36 、Prosthetic Hand Control Based on EMG Signals───基于肌電信號的仿人型假手控制

37 、Objective To investigate the reoperation indication, surgical timing and the key point of surgical treatment of prosthetic valve endocarditis (PVE) after valve replacement.───摘要目的探討人工心臟瓣膜心內(nèi)膜炎(PVE)再次外科手術指征、手術時機和手術治療要點。

38 、All cases had individual prosthesis custom-made 2 weeks later because of their dissatisfaction with ready-made prosthetic eye.───患者術后2周試戴成品義眼，不滿意者予以定制個性化義眼。

39 、Today, many surgeons agree that use of a prosthetic mesh is the preferred way to repair most recurrent hernias.───今天，很多醫(yī)生都認同補片修補是治療復發(fā)疝的首選方法。

40 、Bbut also includes unusual exhibits such as a prosthetic leg donated by a war veteran who fell in love with his physiotherapist.───在柏林的展覽上還出現(xiàn)過一位女士用來砸爛自己前女友家具的斧子，以及那些破碎的家具。此外，還有一件婚紗和一雙溜冰鞋。

41 、The main content of this scientific meeting is prothodontic technology, which includes four parts, like clinical prothodontics, clinical oral implantology, prosthetic techniques, and oral implantologic techniques.───會議內(nèi)容:口腔修復臨床、口腔種植臨床、口腔修復工藝、口腔種植工藝等。

42 、They could be used for prosthetic limbs, and robotic exoskeletons that would give humans super strength. And it would make better, sportier humanoid robots.───它們可以用于假肢和機器人的外骨骼，給人類提供超力量。它將能夠用于制造更好、運動力更強的類人機器人。

43 、Doctors say that when she was first presented with her new prosthetic leg, Mosha was scared of it and resisted the doctors' help.───醫(yī)生說：當小象第一次看到自己裝上的假肢時，它顯得很害怕，并拒絕醫(yī)生的幫忙。

44 、How a guy goes about getting a hold of one of those prosthetic jobbies.───一個人怎么才能得到假肢?

45 、Ando had me embed it in his prosthetic.─── 安藤讓我把它植入了他的假肢

46 、They are simple proteins combined with nonprotein groups (prosthetic groups).───它們是由簡單蛋白質(zhì)結(jié)合非蛋白的基團（輔基）組成的。

47 、So abradability is one of the important factors to choose prosthetic material.───因此,耐磨性是選擇牙科材料的關鍵因素之一。

48 、Arterial primary or patch repair was performed in 28 cases, end-to-end anastomosis in 37 cases, saphenous vein graft used in 32 cases, prosthetic graft bypass in 23 cases, thrombectomy in 2 cases and blood vessel ligation in 3 cases.───手術方法包括動脈修補(補片)28例、端-端吻合37例、自體靜脈轉(zhuǎn)流32例、人工血管轉(zhuǎn)流23例、單純?nèi)∷?例和單純結(jié)扎3例。

49 、Radiographs showed no difference in prosthetic alignment.───放射學結(jié)果顯示兩者在假體序列上沒有差異。

50 、In January, athletics' governing body the IAAF banned him from able-bodied events, claiming his prosthetic limbs give him an unfair advantage.───今年一月,運動員管理機構(gòu)IAAF(國際業(yè)余田聯(lián))禁止他參加健全人的比賽,聲稱他的人造小腿給予了他不公平的競爭優(yōu)勢.

51 、Despite the improvements in medical and surgical therapy,prosthetic valve endocarditis(PVE)is still associated with a difficult diagnosis,a severe prognosis,and remains a clinical challenge.───盡管人工瓣膜心內(nèi)膜炎的治療手段不斷進步,但往往因為診斷較晚、預后較差,成為臨床上的一大難題。

52 、CLINICAL ANALYSIS OF PROSTHETIC VALVE ENDOCARDITIS───人工心臟瓣膜感染性心內(nèi)膜炎臨床分析

53 、The specimens made from Bayer tooth, thermosetting plastic, copper base alloy, titanium and its alloy have relatively good wear resistance as well and are thus idea prosthetic materials.───拜爾牙、熱固塑料、銅基合金、鈦及鈦合金是較為理想的牙科修復材料 ;

54 、department of prosthetic dentistry───口腔矯形科

55 、Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) aims to provide a durable prosthetic knee with nearly normal range of motion.───全膝置換術（TKA）的目的在于提供給患者經(jīng)久耐用的膝關節(jié)假體同時恢復其近乎正常的膝關節(jié)運動范圍。

56 、Casting a mirror image from her good eye, Barron created a prosthetic device that she can pop in whenever she goes out in public.───barron以她健康完好的右眼為模型，為她制作了假體，使她可以隨時戴著出門。

57 、To increase prosthetics performance and success ratio of the making, this paper researches and designs the computer aided manufacturing (CAM )and virtual manufacturing(VM) of the prosthetic socket.───為了提高假肢接受腔的性能和制作成功率，本文在接受腔的計算機輔助制造和虛擬制造方面進行了研究和設計。

58 、A theatrical chameleon, Kidman even wore a prosthetic nose for the movie.───堪稱戲劇變色龍的妮可?基德曼，甚至在本片中戴上假鼻子。

59 、Intracardiac thrombi usually form on inflamed or damaged valves, on endocardium adjacent to a region of myocardial infarction (MI), in a dilated or dyskinetic cardiac chamber, or on prosthetic valves.───心臟內(nèi)的栓塞通常發(fā)生在已有炎癥或已被損傷的心瓣膜、心肌梗塞區(qū)附近的心內(nèi)膜、已發(fā)生運動障礙或已擴大的心腔內(nèi)以及人工瓣膜等部位。

60 、modelling tool for use in prosthetic dentistry───制模工具,補牙和

61 、Unlike devices to control prosthetic limbs, which still use wires, many deep brain stimulators already rely on wireless signals.───不同于控制假肢的裝置（還帶著接線），許多大腦深層激勵器已經(jīng)使用無線信號了。

62 、I was pleased to confirm to you the strategic intention of Otto Bock to contribute to the development of the Orthotic &Prosthetic profession in China in a non-competitive and supportive manner.───很高興能借此機會，向您明確了奧托博克的戰(zhàn)略發(fā)展方向，進一步闡述了奧托博克旨在以非競爭的以及支持合作的方式為中國假肢矯形器行業(yè)的發(fā)展做出貢獻。

63 、That aesthetic could be translated into almost anything as demonstrated by designer Joanna M.Hawley and her Prosthetic Leg concept.───就像設計者焦安娜 M.豪莉和她的假腿概念所闡釋的那樣，那些富有美感的作品可以變換成各種東西。

64 、Prosthetic enzyme of mutase, catalyze reactions of group, mainly methyl, metachoresis in the interior of substrate molecule.───變位酶的輔酶，催化底物分子內(nèi)基團(主要為甲基)的變位反應。

65 、It is amazing what they can do with prosthetics.─── 現(xiàn)在的義肢技術已經(jīng)很出神入化了

66 、Control moment of prosthetic knee joint───四桿機構(gòu)膝關節(jié)控制力矩分析

67 、Incisive papilla is a significant anatomical landmark in locating upper anterior teeth position in partial or complete and implant prosthetic denture fabrication procedure.───摘要在全口義齒的制作上，門齒乳突是決定上顎前齒位置的一個重要指標。

68 、Purpose.A retrospective cohort study was conducted to evaluate the subjective long-term results of Dacron prosthetic ligaments in the management of primary anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.───摘要目的我們對于以達克隆人工韌帶進行前十字韌帶重建手術進行一個回溯型研究來評估其主觀結(jié)果。

69 、The prosthetic valve replacement was underwent in aortic valve 94,mistral valve 255,and double valve 65.There were 74 cases with post operation complication(17.9%),and 16 cases death(3.86%) in early surgery.───共行主動脈瓣膜置換(AVR)94例,二尖瓣置換(MVR)255例,雙瓣置換(DVR)65例。 414例手術并發(fā)癥74例(17.9%)。

70 、Furthermore, the experimental results show that the classifier presents a new method for the EMG control of the multi-DOF prosthetic hand.───實驗結(jié)果表明，該分類器為多自由度肌電假手的控制提供了一種有效的方法。

71 、It's amazing what they can do with prosthetics these days.─── 不過這年頭 修復技術很先進的

72 、PURPOSE: To analyze the difference of masticatory muscle in bilateral distal-extension partially edentulous patients before and after prosthetic rehabilitation by surface electromyography.───摘要目的：從頜面肌肌電生理的角度，探討雙側(cè)末端游離牙列缺損患者在修復前、后不同時期的肌電變化規(guī)律。

73 、Complication of internal prosthetic device───內(nèi)假體裝置并發(fā)癥

74 、prosthetic augmentation mammoplasty───假體隆乳

75 、But you know a man with a prosthetic leg.─── 但是你認識一個裝了義肢的人

76 、List complications of prosthetic cardiac valves and appropriate emergency department management.───舉出人工心臟瓣膜的并發(fā)癥及適的急診處置.

77 、The accelerated streptokinase infusion is not better than the standard infusion for left-sided prosthetic valve thrombosis.───在治療左側(cè)人工瓣膜血栓中快速注射鏈激酶并不比標注注射更有效。

78 、The prosthetic has given Molly a whole new life, Allison Barca DVM, Molly's regular vet, reports.───修復了摩莉一個全新的生活，艾利森巴薩變分方法，摩莉的定期檢查，報告。

79 、He can be happy with a prosthetic leg.─── 即使裝上假肢他也可以很幸福

80 、Primitive people propped up their own lives, not prosthetic hand on you.───原始人撐起自己的一生，不會假手于人。

81 、The depth of ENDODONTIC fiber post would influence the dentinal stress distribution to some extend while the depth of PROSTHETIC fiber post has little influence on the dentinal stress distribution.───ENDODONTIC石英纖維樁的深度對應力分布有一定影響，而PROSTHETIC石英纖維樁的深度對應力分布基本無影響。

82 、There were 23 patients with unilateral congenital microphthalmos receiving prosthetic treatment.───在接受眼窠擴張治療后，這些病患在外觀上都獲得很大的改善。

83 、Calvin spent 200 hours designing the complex prosthetic appendage.───加爾文花了200小時設計這個復合材料附屬物。

84 、Total knee replacement (TKR) surgery is a common orthopaedic procedure to replace damaged articular surfaces of the knee with prosthetic implants.───全膝關節(jié)置換手術是一種關節(jié)功能的重建手術。其關鍵操作是對病人的股骨做五次定向切割與脛骨橫向切割，并用合適的假體替換受損關節(jié)。

85 、prosthetic replacement for elbow joint───人工肘關節(jié)代替術

86 、Kovarik RE, Ergle JW. Fracture toughness of posterior composite resinsfabricated by incremental layering[J]. J Prosthet Dent ,1993,69:557.───巢永烈，陳貴豐.薄性瓷貼面牙體預術式的分型探討[J].華西口腔醫(yī)學雜志，1996，14（2）：3840.

87 、That dude, there. I need his prosthetic leg.─── 那邊那位 我需要他的假腿

88 、As part of a surgical team, Barron helped give Zahida Parveen prosthetic eyes, ears, and a nose.───barron是外科手術小組的成員，他給Zahida Parveen戴上了精制的雙眼、雙耳和鼻部假體。

89 、To obtain a highly integrated system, the SOPC technology was applied.A PDA was adopted to communicate with the NTU-hand prosthetic system.Besides, the EMG discriminative system was built on the PDA.───為了達成高度整合的目的，我們引進了SOPC的技術，并且使用PDA操控人工義肢，此外，我們也成功的把肌電辨識系統(tǒng)嵌進PDA中。

90 、A prosthetic device serving to close an opening in the body.───修復性裝置用以關閉人體開口的修復性裝置

酶的結(jié)構(gòu)

有些酶由一條多肽鏈組成，如溶菌酶等，有些酶雖然由幾條多條肽鏈組成，但是肽鏈間通過二硫鍵共價連接（因此結(jié)合得很緊密），如胰凝乳蛋白酶由3條肽鏈組成，肽鏈間通過5對二硫鍵連接成一個整體，這些酶都稱為 單體酶 （Monomeric Enzyme）

有些酶由兩個或兩個以上的亞基組成，亞基之間依靠次級鍵（氫鍵以及弱的共價鍵和范德華力）組成，亞基間的結(jié)合不很緊密。亞基可以是相同的，也可以是不同的，如己糖激酶由4個相同亞基組成，而琥珀酸脫氫酶由1個α亞基、1個β亞基組成，這樣的酶稱作 寡聚酶 （Oligomeric Enzyme）。

有的時候若干種酶依靠非共價鍵結(jié)合在一起，依次催化一些列相關反應，酶學委員會建議將這樣一組酶稱為 多酶復合物 （Multienzyme Complex）或者多酶體系（Multienzyme System）。如催化脂肪酸合成的7種酶和1種非酶載體蛋白共同組成脂肪酸合成酶系。

值得注意的是，多酶復合物中的每一種酶都有一個系統(tǒng)編號，而多功能酶則是同一種酶具有對應于不同催化活性的多個系統(tǒng)編號。

完全由蛋白質(zhì)組成的酶稱為 單純酶 （Simple Enzyme），如脂肪酶、胰蛋白酶等。除蛋白外，還結(jié)合有一些對熱穩(wěn)定的非蛋白質(zhì)小分子或金屬離子的稱為 綴合酶 （Conjugated Enzyme），如細胞色素氧化酶等。

綴合酶的蛋白質(zhì)部分稱為 脫輔酶 （Apoenzyme），非蛋白質(zhì)部分稱為 輔因子 （Cofactor），脫輔酶與輔因子結(jié)合形成的完整復合物成為全酶（Holoenzyme）。根據(jù)輔因子的性質(zhì)及其與脫輔酶結(jié)合的緊密程度，將輔因子分為 輔酶 （Coenzyme）、 輔基 （Prosthetic Group）和 金屬離子 。脫輔酶與輔酶可以通過透析分離，脫輔酶與輔基之間則不行。金屬離子往往在催化反應中發(fā)揮重要作用。

在化學反應中，脫輔酶部分決定酶催化的專一性和高效性，輔因子則負責傳遞電子、原子或化學基團。

[1] 袁勤生. 酶與酶工程[M]. 第2版. 上海: 華東理工大學出版社, 2012.

What will humans look like in 100 years

Here's a question that matters.

[Is it ethical to evolve the human body?]

Because we're beginning to get all the tools together to evolve ourselves. And we can evolve bacteria and we can evolve plants and we can evolve animals, and we're now reaching a point where we really have to ask, is it really ethical and do we want to evolve human beings? And as you're thinking about that, let me talk about that in the context of prosthetics, prosthetics past, present, future.

So this is the iron hand that belonged to one of the German counts. Loved to fight, lost his arm in one of these battles. No problem, he just made a suit of armor, put it on, perfect prosthetic. That's where the concept of ruling with an iron fist comes from. And of course these prosthetics have been getting more and more useful, more and more modern. You can hold soft-boiled eggs. You can have all types of controls, and as you're thinking about that, there are wonderful people like Hugh Herr who have been building absolutely extraordinary prosthetics. So the wonderful Aimee Mullins will go out and say, how tall do I want to be tonight? Or he will say what type of cliff do I want to climb? Or does somebody want to run a marathon, or does somebody want to ballroom dance? And as you adapt these things, the interesting thing about prosthetics is they've been coming inside the body. So these external prosthetics have now become artificial knees. They've become artificial hips. And then they've evolved further to become not just nice to have but essential to have.

So when you're talking about a heart pacemaker as a prosthetic, you're talking about something that isn't just, " I'm missing my leg," it's, "if I don't have this, I can die." And at that point, a prosthetic becomes a symbiotic relationship with the human body. And four of the smartest people that I've ever met -- Ed Boyden, Hugh Herr, Joe Jacobson, Bob Lander -- are working on a Center for Extreme Bionics. And the interesting thing of what you're seeing here is these prosthetics now get integrated into the bone. They get integrated into the skin. They get integrated into the muscle. And one of the other sides of Ed is he's been thinking about how to connect the brain using light or other mechanisms directly to things like these prosthetics. And if you can do that, then you can begin changing fundamental aspects of humanity. So how quickly you react to something depends on the diameter of a nerve. And of course, if you have nerves that are external or prosthetic, say with light or liquid metal, then you can increase that diameter and you could even increase it theoretically to the point where, as long as you could see the muzzle flash, you could step out of the way of a bullet. Those are the order of magnitude of changes you're talking about.

This is a fourth sort of level of prosthetics. These are Phonak hearing aids, and the reason why these are so interesting is because they cross the threshold from where prosthetics are something for somebody who is "disabled" and they become something that somebody who is "normal" might want to actually have, because what this prosthetic does, which is really interesting, is not only does it help you hear, you can focus your hearing, so it can hear the conversation going on over there. You can have superhearing. You can have hearing in 360 degrees. You can have white noise. You can record, and oh, by the way, they also put a phone into this. So this functions as your hearing aid and also as your phone. And at that point, somebody might actually want to have a prosthetic voluntarily.

All of these thousands of loosely connected little pieces are coming together, and it's about time we ask the question, how do we want to evolve human beings over the next century or two? And for that we turn to a great philosopher who was a very smart man despite being a Yankee fan.

(Laughter)

And Yogi Berra used to say, of course, that it's very tough to make predictions, especially about the future.

(Laughter)

So instead of making a prediction about the future to begin with, let's take what's happening in the present with people like Tony Atala, who is redesigning 30-some-odd organs. And maybe the ultimate prosthetic isn't having something external, titanium. Maybe the ultimate prosthetic is take your own gene code, remake your own body parts, because that's a whole lot more effective than any kind of a prosthetic. But while you're at it, then you can take the work of Craig Venter and Ham Smith. And one of the things that we've been doing is trying to figure out how to reprogram cells. And if you can reprogram a cell, then you can change the cells in those organs. So if you can change the cells in those organs, maybe you make those organs more radiation-resistant. Maybe you make them absorb more oxygen. Maybe you make them more efficient to filter out stuff that you don't want in your body. And over the last few weeks, George Church has been in the news a lot because he's been talking about taking one of these programmable cells and inserting an entire human genome into that cell. And once you can insert an entire human genome into a cell, then you begin to ask the question, would you want to enhance any of that genome? Do you want to enhance a human body? How would you want to enhance a human body? Where is it ethical to enhance a human body and where is it not ethical to enhance a human body? And all of a sudden, what we're doing is we've got this multidimensional chess board where we can change human genetics by using viruses to attack things like AIDS, or we can change the gene code through gene therapy to do away with some hereditary diseases, or we can change the environment, and change the expression of those genes in the epigenome and pass that on to the next generations. And all of a sudden, it's not just one little bit, it's all these stacked little bits that allow you to take little portions of it until all the portions coming together lead you to something that's very different.

And a lot of people are very scared by this stuff. And it does sound scary, and there are risks to this stuff. So why in the world would you ever want to do this stuff? Why would we really want to alter the human body in a fundamental way?

The answer lies in part with Lord Rees, astronomer royal of Great Britain. And one of his favorite sayings is the universe is 100 percent malevolent. So what does that mean? It means if you take any one of your bodies at random, drop it anywhere in the universe, drop it in space, you die. Drop it on the Sun, you die. Drop it on the surface of Mercury, you die. Drop it near a supernova, you die. But fortunately, it's only about 80 percent effective. So as a great physicist once said, there's these little upstream eddies of biology that create order in this rapid torrent of entropy. So as the universe dissipates energy, there's these upstream eddies that create biological order. Now, the problem with eddies is, they tend to disappear. They shift. They move in rivers. And because of that, when an eddy shifts, when the Earth becomes a snowball, when the Earth becomes very hot, when the Earth gets hit by an asteroid, when you have supervolcanoes, when you have solar flares, when you have potentially extinction-level events like the next election --

(Laughter)

then all of a sudden, you can have periodic extinctions. And by the way, that's happened five times on Earth, and therefore it is very likely that the human species on Earth is going to go extinct someday. Not next week, not next month, maybe in November, but maybe 10,000 years after that. As you're thinking of the consequence of that, if you believe that extinctions are common and natural and normal and occur periodically, it becomes a moral imperative to diversify our species. And it becomes a moral imperative because it's going to be really hard to live on Mars if we don't fundamentally modify the human body. Right? You go from one cell, mom and dad coming together to make one cell, in a cascade to 10 trillion cells. We don't know, if you change the gravity substantially, if the same thing will happen to create your body. We do know that if you expose our bodies as they currently are to a lot of radiation, we will die. So as you're thinking of that, you have to really redesign things just to get to Mars. Forget about the moons of Neptune or Jupiter. And to borrow from Nikolai Kardashev, let's think about life in a series of scales. So Life One civilization is a civilization that begins to alter his or her looks. And we've been doing that for thousands of years. You've got tummy tucks and you've got this and you've got that. You alter your looks and I'm told that not all of those alterations take place for medical reasons.

(Laughter)

Seems odd.

A Life Two civilization is a different civilization. A Life Two civilization alters fundamental aspects of the body. So you put human growth hormone in, the person grows taller, or you put x in and the person gets fatter or loses metabolism or does a whole series of things, but you're altering the functions in a fundamental way. To become an intrasolar civilization, we're going to have to create a Life Three civilization, and that looks very different from what we've got here. Maybe you splice in Deinococcus radiodurans so that the cells can resplice after a lot of exposure to radiation. Maybe you breathe by having oxygen flow through your blood instead of through your lungs. But you're talking about really radical redesigns and one of the interesting things that's happened in the last decade is we've discovered a whole lot of planets out there. And some of them may be Earth-like. The problem is, if we ever want to get to these planets, the fastest human objects -- Juno and Voyager and the rest of this stuff -- take tens of thousands of years to get from here to the nearest solar system. So if you want to start exploring beaches somewhere else, or you want to see two-sun sunsets, then you're talking about something that is very different, because you have to change the timescale and the body of humans in ways which may be absolutely unrecognizable. And that's a Life Four civilization.

Now, we can't even begin to imagine what that might look like, but we're beginning to get glimpses of instruments that might take us even that far. And let me give you two examples. So this is the wonderful Floyd Romesberg, and one of the things that Floyd's been doing is he's been playing with the basic chemistry of life. So all life on this planet is made in ATCGs, the four letters of DNA. All bacteria, all plants, all animals, all humans, all cows, everything else. And what Floyd did is he changed out two of those base pairs, so it's ATXY. And that means that you now have a parallel system to make life, to make babies, to reproduce, to evolve, that doesn't mate with most things on Earth or in fact maybe with nothing on Earth. Maybe you make plants that are immune to all bacteria. Maybe you make plants that are immune to all viruses. But why is that so interesting? It means that we are not a unique solution. It means you can create alternate chemistries to us that could be chemistries adaptable to a very different planet that could create life and heredity.

The second experiment, or the other implication of this experiment, is that all of you, all life is based on 20 amino acids. If you don't substitute two amino acids, if you don't say ATXY, if you say ATCG + XY, then you go from 20 building blocks to 172, and all of a sudden you've got 172 building blocks of amino acids to build life-forms in very different shapes.

The second experiment to think about is a really weird experiment that's been taking place in China. So this guy has been transplanting hundreds of mouse heads. Right? And why is that an interesting experiment? Well, think of the first heart transplants. One of the things they used to do is they used to bring in the wife or the daughter of the donor so the donee could tell the doctors, "Do you recognize this person? Do you love this person? Do you feel anything for this person?" We laugh about that today. We laugh because we know the heart is a muscle, but for hundreds of thousands of years, or tens of thousands of years, "I gave her my heart. She took my heart. She broke my heart." We thought this was emotion and we thought maybe emotions were transplanted with the heart. Nope. So how about the brain? Two possible outcomes to this experiment. If you can get a mouse that is functional, then you can see, is the new brain a blank slate? And boy, does that have implications. Second option: the new mouse recognizes Minnie Mouse. The new mouse remembers what it's afraid of, remembers how to navigate the maze, and if that is true, then you can transplant memory and consciousness. And then the really interesting question is, if you can transplant this, is the only input-output mechanism this down here? Or could you transplant that consciousness into something that would be very different, that would last in space, that would last tens of thousands of years, that would be a completely redesigned body that could hold consciousness for a long, long period of time?

And let's come back to the first question: why would you ever want to do that? Well, I'll tell you why. Because this is the ultimate selfie.

(Laughter)

This is taken from six billion miles away, and that's Earth. And that's all of us. And if that little thing goes, all of humanity goes. And the reason you want to alter the human body is because you eventually want a picture that says, that's us, and that's us, and that's us, because that's the way humanity survives long-term extinction. And that's the reason why it turns out it's actually unethical not to evolve the human body even though it can be scary, even though it can be challenging, but it's what's going to allow us to explore, live, and get to places we can't even dream of today, but which our great-great-great-great- grandchildren might someday.

Thank you very much.